谢
@黄鹤喵,我觉得在国外学习和生活带给我影响比较大的是一种“避险”Hedge (linguistics)的说话方式,以至影响了我中文的说话习惯。从事学术研究的知友可能很熟悉这一说法「
什么是「坏」语言? - 拾荒少女的回答」,不过避险不仅适用于academia,也广泛用于日常交流。接下来,我们用先归纳后分析的方法来跟大家讲一讲这一种语用现象:Hedging.
「模拟拾荒少女的一天」
#1. 家里
拾荒:早啊。这是毕业典礼的guest ticket,谢谢你肯去帮我拍照。
室友:没事,我也想去凑凑热闹。中午吃过饭去来得及吗?
拾荒:哦,我不知道你说的中午具体是几点,不过以你平时吃饭的点儿来看,我觉得会有点赶。
室友:这样,我平时12点睡醒了就去吃饭(室友是码农)。你觉得最迟几点来得及?
拾荒:哎呀又要打搅你昼伏夜出的生活了。典礼下午一点开始,但提前四十五分钟就开始进场,典礼前十五分钟已经不允许进场了。我们能不能十一点半出发?
室友:也好,或许我们可以一起吃个早午饭什么的?
拾荒:没问题!再次谢谢啦。
#2. Dinner
侍应生:Hi, What can I get you?
拾荒: Hi, Can I have the house salad and Thai Chili Soup?
侍应生:Take away or...
拾荒:Take away, thanks. Oh, I'm sorry to ask, but can you give me 5 £1 coins for the change?
侍应生:Yeah, sure. You can wait at the table, I'll bring it to you.
拾荒:Thanks.
#3. Hallway
Daniel:You are early, didn't expect to see you on graduation day.
拾荒:Hi, Daniel. I'm here to see Antonella. But she isn't in here office, so...
Daneil:I guess you didn't make an appointment?
拾荒:Oh well, I assume she would be here, it's Wednesday.
Daniel:I'm not sure if it helps, but I was told the developmental lab are attending the seminar today.
拾荒:The amnesia one? Yeah I also got that email. When does it end, maybe around half ten?
Daniel:That's right. How's the proposal thing going?
拾荒:Not bad I think, I'm here to discuss the draft with Antonella.
Daniel:Good luck then, gotta run.
拾荒:Fingers crossed! I'll see you around.
#4. Administration Office
拾荒:Hi Katie, I'm wondering when and where the Amnesia Seminar is taking place?
Katie:Let me check (typing...) if you mean the one held by our Developmental Lab, it began half hour ago at the ground floor conference room in 7 George Square, and it will end at 11:30.
拾荒:Thanks a lot!
Katie:Anytime.
#5. Library Help Desk
拾荒:Hi, I'm wondering when my library card expires, can you check it for me?
Staff:Sure, just one sec (typing...) Em, from what I see here, it will expire on someday in November, I cannot tell the exact day.
拾荒:I see, but it's already 26th, I'm curious by what time I will no longer have access to the office building, and the lab.
Staff:From previous experience, I suppose it might be after the graduation ceremony, but I can't be sure.
拾荒:Many thanks, that's very helpful.
Staff:Sure.
#6. Professor's office
Antonella:Hi, how are you?
拾荒:Very well, thanks! Your automatic reply indicates you were still in the states yesterday, being at the uni so early, it must be exhausted.
Antonella:(haha) Well, exhausted but happy. So, I just finished reading your draft, and I think compared to the first draft, you've made a great improvement. It's very clear what you want to do for your PhD. There are some insignificant problems in the writing, you can see in the comments.
拾荒:That's great! Thank you professor. But I'm not sure if I should include detailed experiment methodologies in the research proposal.
Antonella:We don't expect to see detailed methodologies at this stage, because you haven't started yet. Also, the first year is intended for developing and improving the formal proposal, and based on that you will build your PhD dissertation project. This is just a rough idea.
拾荒:I was told during the first year I still need to take some courses in experimental design, data analysis, something like that. (rising tone)
Antonella:Yes, and also some introduction courses in psychology, since your project also involves working memory, sounds good?
拾荒:Sounds perfect. About that, since we brought it up, is it my responsibility to contact with secondary supervisor, maybe someone in the psychology department, who works on working memory?
Antonella:Working memory is not my strong suit, so I agree you need someone to help you in this area. But let me worry about that.
#7. 电话
拾荒:大王我的导师通过我的research proposal了!!!
大王:恭喜恭喜!太好了,是不是导师通过博士申请就没问题了?
拾荒:按理说是这样。因为博士申请不走学校,直接从院系到指导老师。院系的committee也只起到一个基本条件把关的作用,过了这一关以后最终决定权就在导师啦。我的基本条件合格,所以我想不出有什么理由让我不通过。
大王:想不出有什么理由不通过……你看你这话说得。
拾荒:怎么啦,双重否定表委婉语气嘛,最后结果没出来谁也说不好的。就比如说,与其说“通过的可能性很大”,不如说“不通过的可能性很小”。意思一样,但意思又完全不一样了。不跟你说了我要买酒去!
大王:你快尝试一下我上次推荐的粉象!
拾荒:啤酒不算酒!
大王:……
拾荒:等我回国你能不能请我喝酒呀!
大王:那还用说!干嘛问能不能……又是习惯吗haha
从以上的例子来看,我们基本上可以得出避险用法的适用范围和功效:当说话者想使表达变得委婉、缓和的时候。那么经过「避险」处理的语句是更加模糊还是更加清晰了呢?这个有意思的问题我们且放一放,先来归纳一下「模糊限制语」的种类。
和#1中「不过以你平时吃饭的点儿来看」的表达相似的有:
它们均限定了接下来语句成立/理解的范围。
在这番解释后,我们再回到之前提出的那个问题:经过「避险」处理的语句是更加模糊还是更加清晰了呢?我相信答案是显而易见的。在语义层面上,好像这些语句在表达上比不作避险处理的句子要模糊和不确定一些。但是从语用层面上,从和说话人说话意图的匹配性上来讲,作了避险处理的句子表达得更加精准和严谨。
这些表达,和#3「around」(约莫)#5「someday」(某一天)#6「something like that」(类似的东西)这样的模糊词语都属于「范围变动语」,指的是表达范围变动的词和短语,其作用就是限定语句理解和成立的范围。从这个定义来讲,我们生活中绝大多数表达都应该有使用「范围变动语」的需求,因为除了自然法则这样具有universal属性的事物,其他的表达对象都应该是在一定时空条件限制下才能够成立的。
说完「范围变动语」,我们接下来说「变动型模糊限制语」的另一个分类「程度变动语」。「程度变动语」顾名思义就是表达程度变动的词和短语。
程度变动语是指那些能揭示话语真实程度差别的词语。具体有这样一些常用的词和短语:sort of , a little bit, almost, entirely, kind of, more or less, quite, really, some, somewhat, to some extent,等等。使用这些词语可以把一些接近正确,但又不敢肯定完全正确的话说得更得体一些,更接近真实。(来自模糊限制语_百度百科)
这种类型的模糊限制语很常见,所以例句中我们就给出了一个:#6「There are some insignificant problems in the writing」(在行文中有一些小问题)。insignificant是小的、不重要的意思,用在这里不仅使得表达更为精确,也使得消极意思的表达更为和缓。接下来我们来介绍第二个大类的模糊限制语,它们的主要功效就是使得语句的表达更为和缓,我们称之为「缓和性模糊限制语」。
和#1中「我不知道...不过...」的表达相似的有:
它们均表达了说话者在某一方面的不确定/猜测/怀疑。
以上表达是直接表达说话人对说话内容的不确定/猜测/怀疑,我们称之为「直接缓和语」,与其相对应的是「间接缓和语」。
间接缓和语也是为了表达说话人对话语的不肯定,但它是通过引用第三者的看法来间接表达自己的态度。具体有:according to one's estimates, as is well known, presumably, someone says that, it is said that, the possibility, would be…, the probability is …, it is assumed that …,等等。间接缓和语与直接缓和语的区别在与:直接缓和语直接表达说话人本人的怀疑态度,而间接缓和语则通过引用他人的观点来支持自己的观点,这就使话语显得更客观,也巧妙地避免因说话不准确时应承担的责任。(来自模糊限制语_百度百科)
间接缓和语文中仅有#3和#6中的两例「I was told...」。因为是别人告诉我的,我只是在转述别人的话,所以信息的真实性我无法负责,如果错了也不是我的责任。
合作原则 Cooperative Principle
很多关注语用的朋友们可能已经很熟悉了,合作原则是由美国语言哲学家 Paul Grice提出的描述社会中人与人进行交际时所遵循的语言学法则。这种遵循在很多时候不是有意识的,但并不说明这种原则不存在。它在“冥冥之中”控制、管束着人际交流以有效的方式运行。合作原则也叫做Grice's Maxims.
Maxim of Quality(质量准则)Supermaxim:
- Try to make your contribution one that is true
- 说真话
Submaxims:
Maxim of Quantity(数量准则)
- Do not say what you believe to be false. 不要说你认为不对的话
- Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. 不要说缺乏充分证据的话
Maxim of Relation(关系准则)
- Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange). 说的话应该满足当前交际所需的量
- Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. 说的话不应超出当前交际所需的量
- Be Relevant 说相关的话
e.g. #6 「since we brought it up」既然谈到了,那就说一说……
这个表达意在表明,下一个话题虽然与当前的话题不同,但十分相关。
Maxim of MannerSupermaxim:
- Be perspicuous 说话要清楚、明了
Submaxims:
- Avoid obscurity of expression. 避免模糊
- Avoid ambiguity. 避免歧义
- Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity). 保持简练
- Be orderly. 保持有序
我们假设一种极端情况,那就是人与人之间都不讲真话。具体事例可以举我和我父亲平时的交流:
拾荒:爸爸起床了!(窗帘猛地一拉)
拾荒爸:几点了就叫我……(翻身又睡)
拾荒:现在已经九点半了!
拾荒爸:你骗我吧……(蒙被子继续睡)
拾荒:(黑线)我骗你作甚!你以为我想喊你,要不是我妈妈……&%……&¥%……
拾荒爸:(眯着眼看钟)啊真的九点半了啊!你怎么不早点叫我噻*&*……*&¥#¥#%(*&……
拾荒:(扶额)
拾荒爸:起床了起床了(猛地一拉窗帘)
拾荒:现在几点了……
拾荒爸:都九点了还睡!
拾荒:啊都九点了(光脚跳下床找手机)
(时钟显示:八点十分…………………………………………………………
人与人之间的信任就是这样破坏的!(炸毛。
因为拾荒爸跟别人不说真话,每次都马马虎虎(违背了合作原则中的真实性原则,数量原则,甚至还违反了方式原则-- 故意说得模糊),所以反过来,他认为别人也会以同样的方式跟他讲话。这就造成了拾荒和拾荒爸之间的交流低效而充满火药味。
我们再回到之前谈论的避险,它到底是和合作原则相配合还是相冲突呢?答案是,避险不仅和合作原则相得益彰,在很多时候避险的使用彰显了合作原则在日常交流中无处不在的隐性约束。
合作原则,就是人们在说话时有意无意发表免责声明的内在动因之一:如果我们都不说真话,那么谈话将无法进行下去。为了避免成为谈话中断的罪魁祸首,在涉及不确定的问题时,我们要把丑话说到前面。
礼貌原则 Politeness Theory
家猫和我一致同意,Politeness Theory是语用学的完美演绎。它是由 Penelope Brown 和 Stephen Levinson在1978年提出的,用以描述人们在社会交际中为了避免威胁到「face」(可译作面子)而刻意规避某些「face- threatening acts」(威胁面子的行为)的语用现象。
Face(面子)有两种,Positive face(正面面子,以下简称正脸)和Negative Face(负面面子,以下简称反脸)。正脸的内涵是,维持积极、正面的个人形象的需求。反脸的内涵是,个人自由行动不被干涉的需求。这样看来,正脸和中文语境中较多出现的“面子”几乎是重合的。而所谓的「个人自由行动不被干涉的需求」更多的是一种西方自由意志的体现,似乎和东方文化中热情好客的传统不兼容。这也就是为什么若干中文学者试图通过中文语境中反脸被威胁的现象的稀缺来表明Brown and Levinson的礼貌原则不是放之四海而皆准的。扯远了,下面我们通过几种威胁面子的行为(以下简称丢面儿行为)的介绍来进一步理解正脸和反脸。
Negative Face Threatening Acts 威胁反面面子的行为Negative face is threatened when an individual does not avoid or intend to avoid the obstruction of their interlocutor's freedom of action[4]. It can cause damage to either the speaker or the hearer, and makes one of the interlocutors submit their will to the other. Freedom of choice and action are impeded when negative face is threatened.
当说话者的语言行为威胁到/破坏了说话对象的自由行为时,我们称这样的语言行为为“威胁反面面子的行为”。这种行为既可以对说话者造成危害,也可以对听话者造成危害,并最终导致说话的一方向另一方直白地表达自己的诉求。
Damage to the Hearer 对听话者的危害Examples: orders, requests, suggestions, advice, remindings, threats, or warnings.例如:命令,要求,建议,提醒,威胁或警告。
- An act that affirms or denies a future act of the hearer creates pressure on the hearer to either perform or not perform the act.[4] 当说话者的行为在某种程度上对听话者的行为造成压力,使得对方不得不做或者不做某件事时,听话者的反面面子就受到了危害。
Examples: compliments, expressions of envy or admiration, or expressions of strong negative emotion toward the hearer (e.g. hatred, anger, lust).例如:赞美,羡慕嫉妒恨,或者其他强烈的负面情绪(如仇恨,愤怒,饥渴)
- An act that expresses the speaker’s sentiments of the hearer or the hearer’s belongings.[4] 当说话者对听话者或者听话者的所有物表达情绪时,听话者的反面面子就受到了危害。
Examples: offers, and promises.
- An act that expresses some positive future act of the speaker toward the hearer. In doing so, pressure has been put on the hearer to accept or reject the act and possibly incur a debt.[4] 当说话者对听话者做出正面的许诺时,说话者有意无意地造成了一种听话者亏欠于说话者的处境。
例如:提议和许诺
Damage to the Speaker 对说话者的危害
An act that shows that the speaker is succumbing to the power of the hearer [4].一种表明说话者屈服于听话者权力的行为 。
- Expressing thanks 表达感谢
- Accepting a thank you or apology 接受感谢或道歉
- Excuses 借口
- Acceptance of offers 接受提议
- A response to the hearer’s violation of social etiquette 对听话者违背社会礼仪的回应
- The speaker commits himself to something he or she does not want to do 说话者承诺去做一件她/他并不想做的事情
Positive Face Threatening Acts 威胁正面面子的行为Positive face is threatened when the speaker or hearer does not care about their interactor’s feelings, wants, or does not want what the other wants [4]. Positive face threatening acts can also cause damage to the speaker or the hearer. When an individual is forced to be separated from others so that their well being is treated less importantly, positive face is threatened. 当说话者或听话者不顾及他人的感受、要求,或无法与他人共情时,正面面子就受到了威胁。正面面子的威胁行为既可以对说话者造成危害,也可以对听话者造成危害。当个体被迫和群体分离,且他们的感受和处境不受重视时,正面面子就受到了危害。
Damage to the Hearer 对听话者的危害Examples: expressions of disapproval (e.g. insults, accusations, complaints), contradictions, disagreements, or challenges.
- An act that expresses the speaker’s negative assessment of the hearer’s positive face or an element of his/her positive face. The speaker can display this disapproval in two ways. The first approach is for the speaker to directly or indirectly indicate that he dislikes some aspect of the hearer’s possessions, desires, or personal attributes. The second approach is for the speaker to express disapproval by stating or implying that the hearer is wrong, irrational, or misguided [4]. 当说话者对听话者做出负面评价,否定她/他的正面面子时,听话者的正面面子就受到了危害。这种否定可以以两种形式表现出来:第一种是直接表现出不喜欢;第二种是暗示听话者是错误的一方。
例如;以污蔑、指控、抱怨的形式表达不满;反对;挑战权威Examples: excessively emotional expressions.
- An act that expresses the speaker’s indifference toward the addressee’s positive face [4]. The addressee might be embarrassed for or fear the speaker. 当说话者对听话者的正面面子表现出不感兴趣时,听话者会感到十分窘迫,甚至害怕。
例如:过度的情感表达Examples: disrespect, mention of topics which are inappropriate in general or in the context.
- The speaker indicates that he doesn’t have the same values or fears as the hearer. 当说话者表明和听话者三观不同时,听话者的正面面子会受到损害。
例如:不尊重,表达异见Examples: belittling or boasting.
- The speaker indicates that he is willing to disregard the emotional well being of the hearer. 当说话者对听话者的处境表示漠视、不尊重和不关心时,听话者的正面面子会受损。
例如:贬低对方或自我夸大Examples: topics that relate to politics, race, religion.
- The speaker increases the possibility that a face-threatening act will occur. This situation is created when a topic is brought up by the speaker that is a sensitive societal subject. 当说话者提起敏感话题时,听话者的正面面子受损的几率会增大
例如:有关政治、种族和宗教的话题Examples: interrupting, non-sequiturs.
- The speaker indicates that he is indifferent to the positive face wants of the hearer. This is most often expressed in obvious non-cooperative behavior. 当说话者表明他对听话者的需求毫不在意时,听话者的正面面子会受损。表现形式就是明显的不合作。
例如:打断对方说话,不予置评Example: Addressing a young woman as "ma’am" instead of "miss."
- The speaker misidentifies the hearer in an offensive or embarrassing way. This may occur either accidentally or intentionally. Generally, this refers to the misuse of address terms in relation to status, gender, or age. 当说话者以一种冒犯的或使人尴尬的方式错误地识别/判断听话者的地位、性别或年龄时,听话者的正面面子会受损。
例如:将一位年轻的女性称呼为“夫人”而不是“小姐”
Damage to the speaker 对说话者的危害
An act that shows that the speaker is in some sense wrong, and unable to control himself [4].
Apologies: In this act, speaker is damaging his own face by admitting that he regrets one of his previous acts. 当说话者表达错误,或者是不能够自持时,说话者在致歉和表明悔意时就损害了自己的正面面子。
在做完严肃科普后,我们再回到前面的例子:
References
这就必须要提到中西合璧的新加坡英语了,基本是不注重语法的,怎么简单怎么说。
比如:your name is what?
I go first
Play soccer he very good
This book you want or not?
can or not? correct or not?万金油的can跟correct,真是哪里都能用
还有著名的one two tree...我现在说three也变成tree了,确实是方便发音。。。
还有:
- 尾音加很多咩、啦、唉等语气助词
You don’t know that meh?(驚訝)
I don’t know how lah.(不耐煩意味)
It’s okay lah.(表示安慰)
Cannot go like that one lah
I eat liao(第三声). 我吃过了
- 省略be动词
This house very nice
You so stupid!
That car not worth the money.
- 用got表示不同型式的「有」
Got problem call me can?(有問題打電話給我)
Yesterday got so many people!
- 誇張的重複
They talk talk so much. 他们不停的在BB
So what I do was, I sit down and I tink tink tink, until I get answer lor. 我当时呢,就坐下来想 了想,最后就得出答案了咯。
You go take the small-small one. 你去拿小小的那个
Anyway,口语嘛能听懂就好。。随性点吧 = =
如果是处男,可能是他感到“做爱原来不过如此”的一时失望
如果是宅男型处男,也可能是他感到“三次元中的女生果然都很脏很恶心”的死心
如果不是处男,但经验不多,或许是你不如他之前哪一个
如果不是处男,且经验不少...他其实就是为了上你几次而已
景甜:抱歉,是我选的他。